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Bupivacaine

Grade

Local Anaesthesia

<0.5 mg/kg, Local infusion or injection, q4-5h  at any single site; <1 mg/kg total dose if multiple sites.

Therapeutics

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Targeted perineural blocks include line, ring, paravertebral, sciatic-femoral, radial, ulnar, median, and musculocutaneous nerve blocks and intercostal blocks.

Evidence

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Rabbit Bupivacaine Evidence Base

  1. Bader, A.M., Datta, S., Flanagan, H., Covino, B.G., 1989. Comparison of bupivacaine- and ropivacaine-induced conduction blockade in the isolated rabbit vagus nerve. Anesth Analg 68, 724–727.

  2. Barletta, M., Reed, R., 2019. Local Anesthetics. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 49, 1109–1125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2019.07.004

  3. Barter, L.S., 2011. Rabbit Analgesia. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Analgesia and Pain Management 14, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2010.09.003

  4. Baziian, E.V., Konstantinova, N.N., Nazarova, L.A., Pervak, V.A., Pavlova, N.G., 2014. [The influence of the bupivacaine epidural anesthesia on the rabbit myometrium contractile activity and the functional state of the fetuses in induced labor]. Vestn Ross Akad Med Nauk 91–97. https://doi.org/10.15690/vramn.v69i5-6.1050

  5. Baziian, E.V., Konstantinova, N.N., Nazarova, L.A., Pervak, V.A., Pavlova, N.G., 2013. [The influence of the bupivacaine regional anesthesia on the contractile activity of the uterus and the functional state of the fetus]. Vestn Ross Akad Med Nauk 30–35. https://doi.org/10.15690/vramn.v68i4.608

  6. Bilgin, B., Gursoy, H., Basmak, H., Ozkurt, M., Tuncel, N., Canaz, F., Isiksoy, S., Colak, E., 2013. The effects of bupivacaine injection and oral nitric oxide on extraocular muscle in the rabbit. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 251, 2227–2233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00417-013-2390-8

  7. Cai, X.-Y., Xiong, L.-M., Yang, S.-H., Shao, Z.-W., Xie, M., Gao, F., Ding, F., 2014. Comparison of toxicity effects of ropivacaine, bupivacaine, and lidocaine on rabbit intervertebral disc cells in vitro. Spine J 14, 483–490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2013.06.041

  8. Carson, R.J., Gaylard, D.G., Reynolds, F., 1993. Factors affecting the maternal-fetal distribution of pethidine and bupivacaine in the rabbit. Int J Obstet Anesth 2, 137–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-289x(93)90006-4

  9. Carson, R.J., Reynolds, F., 1992. Elimination of bupivacaine and pethidine from the rabbit feto-placental unit. Br J Anaesth 69, 150–153. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/69.2.150

  10. Carson, R.J., Reynolds, F., 1988. Maternal-fetal distribution of bupivacaine in the rabbit. Br J Anaesth 61, 332–337. https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/61.3.332

  11. Çevik, O., Gergin, Ö.Ö., Yildiz, K., Bayram, A., Canöz, Ö., Halici, M., Baran, M., Yay, A., Polat, S., 2018. [The chondrotoxic and apoptotic effects of levobupivacaine and bupivacaine on the rabbit knee joint]. Rev Bras Anestesiol 68, 605–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjan.2018.06.013

  12. Chaniotakis, I., Antoniou, E., Kostomitsopoulos, N., Karapsias, S., Mirilas, P., Salakos, C., 2018. Stress response to ovariohysterectomy in rabbits: role of anaesthesia and surgery. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 38, 697–701. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443615.2017.1400523

  13. Chmurska, M., Sowińska, N., Pietsch-Fulbiszewska, A., 2017. Dental anesthesia in small mammals on the example of domestic rabbits. Medycyna Weterynaryjna 73, 208–213. https://doi.org/10.21521/mw.5682

  14. Cox, B., Durieux, M.E., Marcus, M.A.E., 2003. Toxicity of local anaesthetics. Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 17, 111–136. https://doi.org/10.1053/bean.2003.0275

  15. d’Ovidio, D., Adami, C., 2019. Locoregional Anesthesia in Exotic Pets. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Orthopedics 22, 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2019.01.007

  16. d’Ovidio, D., Rota, S., Noviello, E., Briganti, A., Adami, C., 2014. Nerve Stimulator–Guided Sciatic-Femoral Block in Pet Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Undergoing Hind Limb Surgery: A Case Series. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, Advances in Clinical Therapeutics 23, 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2013.11.014

  17. Dain, D.S., Boushey, H.A., Gold, W.M., 1975. Inhibition of respiratory reflexes by local anesthetic aerosols in dogs and rabbits. J Appl Physiol 38, 1045–1050. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1975.38.6.1045

  18. Denson, D.D., Thompson, G.A., Coyle, D.E., 1986. Use of a limited physiologic model to explain target organ toxicity of bupivacaine as a function of route of administration. Biopharm Drug Dispos 7, 121–135. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdd.2510070204

  19. DiGeronimo, P.M., da Cunha, A.F., 2022. Local and Regional Anesthesia in Zoological Companion Animal Practice. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Sedation and Anesthesia of Zoological Companion Animals 25, 321–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2021.08.015

  20. Dogan, N., Erdem, A.F., Erman, Z., Kizilkaya, M., 2004. The effects of bupivacaine and neostigmine on articular cartilage and synovium in the rabbit knee joint. J Int Med Res 32, 513–519. https://doi.org/10.1177/147323000403200509

  21. Dollo, G., Le Corre, P., Chevanne, F., Le Verge, R., 2004. Bupivacaine containing dry emulsion can prolong epidural anesthetic effects in rabbits. Eur J Pharm Sci 22, 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejps.2004.02.008

  22. Dorward, P.K., Flaim, M., Ludbrook, J., 1983. Blockade of cardiac nerves by intrapericardial local anaesthetics in the conscious rabbit. Aust J Exp Biol Med Sci 61 (Pt 2), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1038/icb.1983.20

  23. Dragoo, J.L., Pun, S.Y., 2010. Effect of bupivacaine on chondrocyte viability. Spine J 10, 172–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2009.11.015

  24. Fariss, B.L., Foresman, P.A., Rodeheaver, G.T., Chang, D.E., Smith, J.F., Morgan, R.F., Edlich, R.F., 1987. Anesthetic properties and toxicity of bupivacaine and lidocaine for infiltration anesthesia. J Emerg Med 5, 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/0736-4679(87)90255-1

  25. Friel, N.A., Wang, V.M., Slabaugh, M.A., Wang, F., Chubinskaya, S., Cole, B.J., 2013. Rotator cuff healing after continuous subacromial bupivacaine infusion: an in vivo rabbit study. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 22, 489–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2012.04.014

  26. Gomoll, A.H., Yanke, A.B., Kang, R.W., Chubinskaya, S., Williams, J.M., Bach, B.R., Cole, B.J., 2009. Long-term effects of bupivacaine on cartilage in a rabbit shoulder model. Am J Sports Med 37, 72–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546508323748

  27. Gözil, R., Kurt, I., Erdoğan, D., Calgüner, E., Keskil, S., Kurt, M.N., Elmas, C., 2002. Long-term degeneration and regeneration of the rabbit facial nerve blocked with conventional lidocaine and bupivacaine solutions. Anat Histol Embryol 31, 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0264.2002.00397.x

  28. Greenaway, J., Partlow, G., Gonsholt, N., Fisher, K., 2001. Anatomy of the lumbosacral spinal cord in rabbits. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 37, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.5326/15473317-37-1-27

  29. Hamshaw-Thomas, A., Reynolds, F., 1985. Placental transfer of bupivacaine, pethidine and lignocaine in the rabbit. Effect of umbilical flow rate and protein content. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 92, 706–713. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.1985.tb01453.x

  30. Hamshaw-Thomas, A., Rogerson, N., Reynolds, F., 1984. Transfer of bupivacaine, lignocaine and pethidine across the rabbit placenta: influence of maternal protein binding and fetal flow. Placenta 5, 61–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0143-4004(84)80049-1

  31. Heavner, J.E., 2002. Cardiac toxicity of local anesthetics in the intact isolated heart model: a review. Reg Anesth Pain Med 27, 545–555. https://doi.org/10.1053/rapm.2002.36458

  32. Helm, R.H., Lee, Y.S., Pho, R.W., 1987. Experimental studies of the effect of bupivacaine on peripheral nerves. J Hand Surg Br 12, 19–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/0266-7681(87)90046-5

  33. Hogan, Q.H., Stadnicka, A., Bosnjak, Z.J., Kampine, J.P., 1998. Effects of lidocaine and bupivacaine on isolated rabbit mesenteric capacitance veins. Reg Anesth Pain Med 23, 409–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1098-7339(98)90016-5

  34. Hollmén, A., 1973. The placental transfer of bupivacaine and lidocaine and their myocardial and cerebral uptake in the rabbit. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 17, 149–152. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-6576.1973.tb00810.x

  35. Hughes, P.J., Doherty, M.M., Charman, W.N., 1993. A rabbit model for the evaluation of epidurally administered local anaesthetic agents. Anaesth Intensive Care 21, 298–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0310057X9302100307

  36. Kariya, N., Cosson, C., Mazoit, J.-X., 2012. Comparative effect of lidocaine, bupivacaine and RAC 109 on myocardial conduction and contractility in the rabbit. Eur J Pharmacol 691, 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.05.034

  37. Kluge, K., Larenza Menzies, M.P., Kloeppel, H., Pearce, S.G., Bettschart-Wolfensberger, R., Kutter, A.P.N., 2017. Femoral and sciatic nerve blockades and incision site infiltration in rabbits undergoing stifle joint arthrotomy. Lab Anim 51, 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0023677215622734

  38. Kyttä, J., Rosenberg, P.H., Wahlström, T., Olkkola, K., 1982. Histopathological changes in rabbit spinal cord caused by bupivacaine. Reg Anaesth 5, 85–88.

  39. Langerman, L., Chaimsky, G., Golomb, E., Tverskoy, M., Kook, A.I., Benita, S., 1990. A rabbit model for evaluation of spinal anesthesia: chronic cannulation of the subarachnoid space. Anesth Analg 71, 529–535. https://doi.org/10.1213/00000539-199011000-00013

  40. Lee, H., Sowa, G., Vo, N., Vadala, G., O’Connell, S., Studer, R., Kang, J., 2010. Effect of bupivacaine on intervertebral disc cell viability. Spine J 10, 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2009.08.445

  41. Li, Y.-D., Li, Y.-D., n.d. Anatomy of the Inferior Alveolar Nerve in Rabbits and its Block Anesthesia. https://doi.org/10.23937/2469-5734/1510051

  42. Liang, C., Peyman, G.A., Sun, G., 1998. Toxicity of intraocular lidocaine and bupivacaine. Am J Ophthalmol 125, 191–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9394(99)80091-9

  43. Lichtenberger, M., Ko, J., 2007. Anesthesia and Analgesia for Small Mammals and Birds. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Emergency and Critical Care 10, 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2006.12.002

  44. Malinovsky, J.M., Bernard, J.M., Baudrimont, M., Dumand, J.B., Lepage, J.Y., 1997a. A chronic model for experimental investigation of epidural anesthesia in the rabbit. Reg Anesth 22, 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1098-7339(06)80060-x

  45. Malinovsky, J.M., Bernard, J.M., Le Corre, P., Faivre, A., Chatal, J.F., Pinaud, M., 1997b. Extradural bupivacaine-loaded microspheres and spinal cord blood flow in the chronically instrumented rabbit. Clin Physiol 17, 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2281.1997.04040.x

  46. Mazoit, J.X., Orhant, E.E., Boïco, O., Kantelip, J.P., Samii, K., 1993. Myocardial uptake of bupivacaine: I. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of lidocaine and bupivacaine in the isolated perfused rabbit heart. Anesth Analg 77, 469–476.

  47. Moller, R.A., Covino, B.G., 1993. Cardiac electrophysiologic effects of articaine compared with bupivacaine and lidocaine. Anesth Analg 76, 1266–1273. https://doi.org/10.1213/00000539-199306000-00014

  48. Monfared, A.L., 2013. Applied Anatomy of the Rabbit’s Skull and its Clinical Application During Regional Anesthesia 5.

  49. Najman, I.E., Ferreira, J.Z., Abimussi, C.J., Floriano, B.P., Meneghetti, T.M., Oliva, V.N., do Nascimento, P., 2015. Ultrasound-assisted periconal ocular blockade in rabbits. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 42, 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/vaa.12237

  50. Ong, B.H.E., Hidaka, Y., Kaneko, Y., Yamamoto, S., Mizutani, S., Sekiguchi, S., Torisu, S., Naganobu, K., 2020. Effects of a single-bolus bupivacaine injection into the coccygeal spinal canal of rabbits. J Vet Med Sci 82, 197–203. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.19-0555

  51. Perez, T.E., Grubb, T.L., Greene, S.A., Meyer, S., Valdez, N., Bingman, J., Farnsworth, R., 2013. Effects of intratesticular injection of bupivacaine and epidural administration of morphine in dogs undergoing castration. J Am Vet Med Assoc 242, 631–642. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.242.5.631

  52. Pitkanen, M., Feldman, H.S., Arthur, G.R., Covino, B.G., 1992. Chronotropic and inotropic effects of ropivacaine, bupivacaine, and lidocaine in the spontaneously beating and electrically paced isolated, perfused rabbit heart. Reg Anesth 17, 183–192.

  53. Ready, L.B., Plumer, M.H., Haschke, R.H., Austin, E., Sumi, S.M., 1985. Neurotoxicity of intrathecal local anesthetics in rabbits. Anesthesiology 63, 364–370.

  54. Richard, B.M., Ott, L.R., Haan, D., Brubaker, A.N., Cole, P.I., Nelson, K.G., Ross, P.E., Rebelatto, M.C., Newton, P.E., 2011. The safety and tolerability evaluation of DepoFoam bupivacaine (bupivacaine extended-release liposome injection) administered by incision wound infiltration in rabbits and dogs. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 20, 1327–1341. https://doi.org/10.1517/13543784.2011.611499

  55. Ryan, A.C., Dutton, T.A.G., Gurney, M.A., 2022. Peribulbar block in a rabbit presenting for enucleation. Veterinary Record Case Reports n/a, e359. https://doi.org/10.1002/vrc2.359

  56. Schnellbacher, R.W., Divers, S.J., Comolli, J.R., Beaufrère, H., Maglaras, C.H., Andrade, N., Barbur, L.A., Rosselli, D.D., Stejskal, M., Barletta, M., Mayer, J., Rodriguez, P., Quandt, J.E., 2017. Effects of intravenous administration of lidocaine and buprenorphine on gastrointestinal tract motility and signs of pain in New Zealand White rabbits after ovariohysterectomy. Am. J. Vet. Res. 78, 1359–1371. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.78.12.1359

  57. Simon, L., Kariya, N., Edouard, A., Benhamou, D., Mazoit, J.-X., 2004. Effect of bupivacaine on the isolated rabbit heart: developmental aspect on ventricular conduction and contractility. Anesthesiology 101, 937–944. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-200410000-00019

  58. Sung, D.H., 2004. Locating the target nerve and injectate spread in rabbit sciatic nerve block. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 29, 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rapm.2003.12.003

  59. Takahashi, S., 1994. Local anaesthetic bupivacaine alters function of sarcoplasmic reticulum and sarcolemmal vesicles from rabbit masseter muscle. Pharmacol Toxicol 75, 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0773.1994.tb00334.x

  60. Van Caelenberg, A.I., De Rycke, L.M., Hermans, K., Verhaert, L., van Bree, H.J., Gielen, I.M., 2010. Computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy of the head in healthy rabbits. Am J Vet Res 71, 293–303. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.71.3.293

  61. Vasseur, P.B., Paul, H.A., Dybdal, N., Crumley, L., 1984. Effects of local anesthetics on healing of abdominal wounds in rabbits. Am J Vet Res 45, 2385–2388.

  62. Zemel, E., Loewenstein, A., Lazar, M., Perlman, I., 1995. The effects of lidocaine and bupivacaine on the rabbit retina. Doc Ophthalmol 90, 189–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01203338

Infiltration and Perineural Use

  1. d’Ovidio, D., Adami, C., 2019. Locoregional Anesthesia in Exotic Pets. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Orthopedics 22, 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2019.01.007

  2. d’Ovidio, D., Rota, S., Noviello, E., Briganti, A., Adami, C., 2014. Nerve Stimulator–Guided Sciatic-Femoral Block in Pet Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Undergoing Hind Limb Surgery: A Case Series. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, Advances in Clinical Therapeutics 23, 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2013.11.014

  3. Kluge, K., Larenza Menzies, M.P., Kloeppel, H., Pearce, S.G., Bettschart-Wolfensberger, R., Kutter, A.P.N., 2017. Femoral and sciatic nerve blockades and incision site infiltration in rabbits undergoing stifle joint arthrotomy. Lab Anim 51, 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0023677215622734

  4. Sung, D.H., 2004. Locating the target nerve and injectate spread in rabbit sciatic nerve block. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 29, 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rapm.2003.12.003

  5. Vasseur, P.B., Paul, H.A., Dybdal, N., Crumley, L., 1984. Effects of local anesthetics on healing of abdominal wounds in rabbits. Am J Vet Res 45, 2385–2388.

Eye Surgery

  1. d’Ovidio, D., Adami, C., 2019. Locoregional Anesthesia in Exotic Pets. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Orthopedics 22, 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2019.01.007

  2. Monfared, A.L., 2013. Applied Anatomy of the Rabbit’s Skull and its Clinical Application During Regional Anesthesia 5.

  3. Najman, I.E., Ferreira, J.Z., Abimussi, C.J., Floriano, B.P., Meneghetti, T.M., Oliva, V.N., do Nascimento, P., 2015. Ultrasound-assisted periconal ocular blockade in rabbits. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 42, 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/vaa.12237

  4. Ryan, A.C., Dutton, T.A.G., Gurney, M.A., 2022. Peribulbar block in a rabbit presenting for enucleation. Veterinary Record Case Reports n/a, e359. https://doi.org/10.1002/vrc2.359

  5. Van Caelenberg, A.I., De Rycke, L.M., Hermans, K., Verhaert, L., van Bree, H.J., Gielen, I.M., 2010. Computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy of the head in healthy rabbits. Am J Vet Res 71, 293–303. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.71.3.293

  6. Zemel, E., Loewenstein, A., Lazar, M., Perlman, I., 1995. The effects of lidocaine and bupivacaine on the rabbit retina. Doc Ophthalmol 90, 189–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01203338

Dental Surgery 

  1. Barter, L.S., 2011. Rabbit Analgesia. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Analgesia and Pain Management 14, 93–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2010.09.003

  2. Chmurska, M., Sowińska, N., Pietsch-Fulbiszewska, A., 2017. Dental anesthesia in small mammals on the example of domestic rabbits. Medycyna Weterynaryjna 73, 208–213. https://doi.org/10.21521/mw.5682

  3. d’Ovidio, D., Adami, C., 2019. Locoregional Anesthesia in Exotic Pets. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Orthopedics 22, 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2019.01.007

  4. Lennox, A.M., 2008. Clinical Technique: Small Exotic Companion Mammal Dentistry—Anesthetic Considerations. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, Dentistry 17, 102–106. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2008.03.007

  5. Li, Y.-D., Li, Y.-D., n.d. Anatomy of the Inferior Alveolar Nerve in Rabbits and its Block Anesthesia. https://doi.org/10.23937/2469-5734/1510051

  6. Lichtenberger, M., Ko, J., 2007. Anesthesia and Analgesia for Small Mammals and Birds. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, Emergency and Critical Care 10, 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2006.12.002

  7. Monfared, A.L., 2013. Applied Anatomy of the Rabbit’s Skull and its Clinical Application During Regional Anesthesia 5.

  8. Van Caelenberg, A.I., De Rycke, L.M., Hermans, K., Verhaert, L., van Bree, H.J., Gielen, I.M., 2010. Computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy of the head in healthy rabbits. Am J Vet Res 71, 293–303. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.71.3.293

Spinal and Epidural Anesthesia

  1. Baziian, E.V., Konstantinova, N.N., Nazarova, L.A., Pervak, V.A., Pavlova, N.G., 2014. [The influence of the bupivacaine epidural anesthesia on the rabbit myometrium contractile activity and the functional state of the fetuses in induced labor]. Vestn Ross Akad Med Nauk 91–97. https://doi.org/10.15690/vramn.v69i5-6.1050

  2. Baziian, E.V., Konstantinova, N.N., Nazarova, L.A., Pervak, V.A., Pavlova, N.G., 2013. [The influence of the bupivacaine regional anesthesia on the contractile activity of the uterus and the functional state of the fetus]. Vestn Ross Akad Med Nauk 30–35. https://doi.org/10.15690/vramn.v68i4.608

  3. Greenaway, J., Partlow, G., Gonsholt, N., Fisher, K., 2001. Anatomy of the lumbosacral spinal cord in rabbits. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 37, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.5326/15473317-37-1-27

  4. Hughes, P.J., Doherty, M.M., Charman, W.N., 1993. A rabbit model for the evaluation of epidurally administered local anaesthetic agents. Anaesth Intensive Care 21, 298–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/0310057X9302100307

  5. Kyttä, J., Rosenberg, P.H., Wahlström, T., Olkkola, K., 1982. Histopathological changes in rabbit spinal cord caused by bupivacaine. Reg Anaesth 5, 85–88.

  6. Langerman, L., Chaimsky, G., Golomb, E., Tverskoy, M., Kook, A.I., Benita, S., 1990. A rabbit model for evaluation of spinal anesthesia: chronic cannulation of the subarachnoid space. Anesth Analg 71, 529–535. https://doi.org/10.1213/00000539-199011000-00013

  7. Lee, H., Sowa, G., Vo, N., Vadala, G., O’Connell, S., Studer, R., Kang, J., 2010. Effect of bupivacaine on intervertebral disc cell viability. Spine J 10, 159–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2009.08.445

  8. Malinovsky, J.M., Bernard, J.M., Baudrimont, M., Dumand, J.B., Lepage, J.Y., 1997a. A chronic model for experimental investigation of epidural anesthesia in the rabbit. Reg Anesth 22, 80–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1098-7339(06)80060-x

  9. Malinovsky, J.M., Bernard, J.M., Le Corre, P., Faivre, A., Chatal, J.F., Pinaud, M., 1997b. Extradural bupivacaine-loaded microspheres and spinal cord blood flow in the chronically instrumented rabbit. Clin Physiol 17, 361–370. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2281.1997.04040.x

  10. Ong, B.H.E., Hidaka, Y., Kaneko, Y., Yamamoto, S., Mizutani, S., Sekiguchi, S., Torisu, S., Naganobu, K., 2020. Effects of a single-bolus bupivacaine injection into the coccygeal spinal canal of rabbits. J Vet Med Sci 82, 197–203. https://doi.org/10.1292/jvms.19-0555

  11. Ready, L.B., Plumer, M.H., Haschke, R.H., Austin, E., Sumi, S.M., 1985. Neurotoxicity of intrathecal local anesthetics in rabbits. Anesthesiology 63, 364–370.

Bupivicaine Rabbit Cardiotoxicity

  1. Aberg, G., 1972. Toxicological and local anaesthetic effects of optically active isomers of two local anaesthetic compounds. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh) 31, 273–286.

  2. Cave, G., Harvey, M., Prince, G., Lahner, D., Desmet, J., 2010. Effect of hypertonic saline on electrocardiography QRS duration in rabbit model of bupivacaine toxicity resuscitated by intravenous lipid. Anaesthesia 65, 792–798. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2044.2010.06373.x

  3. Choi, Y.S., Lee, K.H., 2011. Insulin effect on bupivacaine-induced cardiotoxicity in rabbits. Korean J Anesthesiol 61, 493–498. https://doi.org/10.4097/kjae.2011.61.6.493

  4. Covino, B.G., 1988. Is there a need for chloroprocaine 3% and bupivacaine 0.75%? Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 39, 151–157.

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Expert Opinion

  1. 1317822 |  220719 Extrapolation of pharmacological properties in man and veterinary species. Some material employed in collating the data displayed here was taken from veterinary product datasheets or extrapolated from pharmacology texts.


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